4B 1545 
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P^OPTJLA^TIOjNT 



BY 



A^&ES 




UNITED STATES, 
NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, 

AND 

BALTIMORE. 



PRICE 10 CENTS 



JoM^^^ 



<^1885,^ 



POPULATION 



BY 



AGES. 



m m»m m 



A Contribution to the Analysis of the Social Condition of 
THE United States, with Special Re- 
ference to the Cities of New 

York, Philadelphia, - 

AND ^^ NrsTV^-^ '^^ 



^'\^''^'^ Baltimore. y' 



-: \ 



**Thou hast regulated all by measure, number and weight." 

, Wisdom of Solomon.— Ch. ii. Verse 22 . 



\ 



BALTIMORE, MD, 
1885, 



ri 



c' 



p 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, 
By Wm. S. Landsberg, ^ ' 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. 



CONTENTS. 

Pages. 

Introductory Remarks 5 

Age Classification in general 5 

Influence of the frequency of births 6 

War and Panics 6 

Shall the number of children be limited'^ 9 

Producing and consuming classes 10 

Relief of the harden of labor 11 

Increase of the burden of labor 12 

Age distribution and Wages 13 

Moraliry and crime 15 

Mortality and disease 16 

General rate of mortality and number of children .17 

General rate of mortality, colored and immigrants 18 

Mortality of children 19 

Causes of death — Zymotic diseases 20 

Consumption 22 

General character of the age distril)ntion 23 

Table for the United States 26 

" '' New York'=^ 27 

" " Philadelphia-^' 28 

'' '^ Baltimore- 29 

Table for the different States and Territories 30 



*The Tables for the Cities of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore are 
oased on manuscript tables obtained through the kindness of the Superin- 
tendent of Census. 



POPULATION BY AGES. 

The distribution of a population according to the ages of the in- 
dividuals is not fortuitous. 

It is the result of the influence which all the circumstances of a 
people's life exert upon its existence naturally conditioned by births 
and deaths. With the difference of these circumstances varies the 
age-distribution so that this, as an external symptom, makes ap- 
parent numerically the inner condition and development of the 
collective life of a people. 

To be sure, this age-classification in all countries follows a nat- 
ural law conditioned by births and deaths and the number of individ- 
uals in a class of any given age decreases with the increasing age 
in general. In particular, however, the differences manifesting them- 
selves are such as to indicate various causes arising from the social 
life of different nations. These differences are perceptible not only 
when nations are compared, but also when the same population is 
observed at different times and at longer intervals. It may be reason- 
ably supposed that even when persons of various vocations are class- 
ified according to their ages, similar differences will appear. For 
the principal national elements of the population of the United 
States these differences are plainly shown by the census. 

AGE-CLASSIFICATION IN GENEEAL. 

If we consider the distribution of the population of the U. S. in 
groups of 5 and 10 years of age we shall find nothing peculiarly 
characteristic, except the general law that the number of persons 
decreases with the increase of age and that even wars and immigra- 
tion do not materially change the general numerical character of 
these.diminishing classes. The result becomes more variable, howev- 
er, when we compare the census of 1880 with that of 1870, and the 
variations are still more striking when compared with the results in 



6 POPULATION BY AGES. 

other countries. Of every 1000 persons in the U. S. there were in 
the year 

1870; 1880: age 

143 138 under 5 years 

125 129 irom 5-9 years 

124 114 from 10-14 years 

105 100 from 15-19 years 

179 183 from 20-29 years 

126 127 from 30-39 years 

91 91 from 40-49 years 

58 02 from 50-59 years 

33 37 from 60-69 years 

16 19 of 70 and over 

1000 1000 

INFLUENCE OF THE FREQUENCY OF BIRTHS. 

The greatest difference in these two census-years is found in the 
classes under 15 years of age, viz : 392 in 1870, and 381 in 1880. 
On the other hand the number of persons of 70 years and upwards 
in 1880 exceeded the number of the same ages in 1870 by 3 in 1000. 
Likewise the classes ranging irom 15 to 69 years of age were more 
numerous in 1880 than in 1870, (600 to 592.) In these two 
last differences in favor of 1880 is clearly noticeable the efiect of the 
civil war (which was in point of time nearer 'co 1870 than to 1880;) 
and this shows accordingly a greater representation of the middle 
aged and more advanced classes than the year 1870. 

To better understand this difference of representation in the classes 
below 15 years of age, it is advisable to fix the birth-years for these 
aaes as also for those of the next order, from 15 to 19 years. These 
were the birth-years for the ages considered in the census-years of 

1870 1880 

Under 5 years, (143 per 1000) 1865-'70 (138 per 1000) 1875-'80 

From 5 to 9 years (123 per 1000) 1860-'65 (129 per 1000) 1870-75 

From 10 to 14 years (124 per 1000) 1855-'60 (114 per 1000) 1865-'70 

From 15 to 19 years (105 per 1000) 1850-'55 (100 per 1000) 1860-'65 

The birth years from '50-'55 yield a greater number for the enum- 
eration of 1870 than the corresponding birth-years 1860-'65 for the 
census of 1880, which years (1860-'65) include the period of the 
war ; just as also the birth-years 1855-'60 for the census of 1870 in 
contrast with the birth-years 1855-70, immediately following the 
war, for the ages from 10 to 14 years in 1880. In like manner the 
birth-years falling within the period of the war, 1860-65, affected 
the results of the census of 1870 for the ages from 5 to 9 years as con- 



POPULATION BY AGES. 7 

trasted with the results of the birth-years 1870-75 for the census of 
1880 and the same ages. 

WAR AND PANIC. 

Still more interesting is the compaiison of the results of the 
birth -years of the war period and of those of the birth-years during 
the panic for ages under 5 years in the two census-years. The 
birth-years for these ages in the census of 1870 were the years of 
the war, and for the same ages in 1880 the years of the commercial 
crisis. The year 1870 shows a greater number of persons in the 
youngest classes than 1880. It appears, accordingly, that the fre- 
quency of births is influenced more by commercial stagnation than 
by war, and this is also presumable, as the war efiects o.jly a part 
of the population considered in determining the number ol births ; 
while in a crisis the entire population must suffer. 

Since the immigrant element under 20 years of age is proportion- 
ally quite unimportant,* the larger or smaller number of persons 
under 20 years may be easily explained by the number of births in 
those years, from which these classes under 20 years are obtained, 
and the accuracy of this explanation becomes the more prob- 
able as the classes observed are younger. 

As neither the census of 1870 nor that of 1880 gives the statistics 
of births, tl^e foregoing statement as to the influence of the war and 
panic is, of course, only a supposition, but one which gains strength 
because supported by the experience of other countries During the 
period of the Franco-German war the number of births was percept- 
ibly interrupted; while at the same time the interesting fact was ob- 
served that the increase in the number of conceptions began not 
with the actual return of the troops but immediately after the sus- 
pension of hostilities and the conclusion of peace. f Thus the effects 
of the war were manifested not only by the withdrawal of a portion of 
the male population, but also by the psychological and economical 
effects produced upon the part of the people remaining at home. 

DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO AGE AND SEX. 
Attention must be called to the fact, that, in general, in countries 

*For agep under 5 years, only 1 to 2 to IWO. under 10 years .3 to 4 to the lOOU, under 15 
years 8 to 9 to the 1000, and under 20 years 15 to 16 to the 1000, 

tThe respective statietical reports were made monthly. The above data are mentioned 
bjr Geo. Mayr in his well known -Regularity of Social Phenomena,' 



8 POPULATION BY AGES. 

with a predominant male element the number of children is greater 
than in countries where the females are in the majority. 

The U. S. with a preponderance of males are of all civilized na- 
tions the most prolific as to the number of children. Of 1000 in- 
habitants in the U. S. the number under the age of 15 years exceeds 
those of the same age in Great Britain by about 20, in Germany 
by about 16, and in France (remarkable for its paucity of children) 
by ahnost 112. Moreover, those States of the Union which have a 
predominance of females, (if considered as a whole) are distinguished 
by a smaller number of children from those States and Territories 
with a majority of mal^s. In those States with a female preponder- 
ance there are, to every 1000 persons, 28 under one year, and 371 
under 15 years; while in the States and Territories with a male ma- 
jority, there are 31 persons under one year, and 392 under 15 years of 
aee to the 1000. This difference corresponds in rate very nearly with 
that between the U. S. and Great Britain. This is worthy of notice 
as the economical and social character of those States of the Union 
with a majority of females and at the same time with a preponderat- 
ing industrial and commercial population more nearly approaches 
that of Great Britain than does the character of those States of 
the Union with a male majority chiefly occupied in agricultural pur- 
suits. Of all persons occupied in agriculture there are living in States 
with a female excess 3,298,672 and 4,371,821 who are living, in 
States with a male excess; and of all persons occupied in manufac- 
tuiing only 1,491,870 are living in States having a male excess in 
contrast wiih 2,345,242 living in states with a female preponderance. 

As to advanced ages the relation in reference to sex is the re- 
verse. In a population with a female excess aged persons are more 
numerously represented than in one with a male majority. Of the 
24,482,570 inhabitants of the United States living in States with a 
female preponderance were 590,877 persons older than 69 years or 
2413 in 100,000, and of the population of 25,673,213 in the States 
with an overbalancing number of males were only 406,706 aged or 
1584 in 100,000. 

The following table based upon the census of 1880 will give a 
general idea of the relation of sex to age-distribution in the United 
States. 



POPULATION BY AGES. 9 

For eacli 1000 of males there were females : 

A t til A no-PC . ^^ ^^^ States with an In the States with an 

AC me a^es . Excess of Females : Excess of Males : 

Under one year 977.22 969.13 

Under fifteen years 970.81 973.08 

Over seventy years 1225.26 827.60 

Of fifteen to seventy years 1052-97 874.95 

The female excess becomes evident in the ages over 15 years, and 
includes the marriageable period of life. Considering this and the 
remarkable relation this excess has to the number of children, to 
which it bears an inverse ratio, all those who feel an interest in 
public morality and the improvement of the condition of the fe- 
male sex, will find these facts instructive. In order to strengthen 
the same the following table may be added showing for the three 
cities. New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, the excess of females 
at the ages from 20 to 50 for 1000 males of the same ages. This 
excess was in 1880 : 

For the Popula- For the White For the Colored 

tion in Genei*al ; Population: Population; 

In New York 35 33 96 

In Philadelphia 99 93 255 

In Baltimoi-e 125 79 353 

The working of machinery, the occupation of the population, its 
density, the age-distribution and the disproportion of the sex ratio 
are social elements intimately connected and manifesting their com- 
bined influence in different spheres of life, the moral sphere not 
excepted.* 



SHALL THE NUMBER OF CHILDREN BE LIMITED? 

The question has often be^^n raised and discussed as to what kind 
of distribution of persons into young and old would be the most 
advantageous to a country. It is said that the relation of 
the necessities of life and the products of labor must be more favor- 
able where the number of consumers is smaller and the number of 
producers larger. On the other hand, it is demonstrated that in a 
smaller representation of the younger classes the population is re- 
tarded in growth and thereby loses in economical and political pow- 
er and importance in the great family of nations ; and besides, in 
consequence of having less concern for children, it loses in moral 

■^Westminster Keview, 1880, October, Art, 5— EmUio Morpu^go, Statistics And Social 
Science, JBook 1, Chapter 4, 



10 POPULATION BY AGES. 

character and in incentive to economical efforts. Both views, when 
considered from but one side, may be correct, but, of course, in their 
general character they are not accurate, because too large an increase 
as well as too great a sparcity of children may be symptoms of de* 
cay. It is much more important to determine in each case what re- 
lation the one or the other condition sustains to the economical 
strength of a people. For an industrious population favored with 
natural conditions of production, a large number of children is a bless- 
ing, while for a sluggish people, living under the opposite condi- 
tion, it would be a detriment. To the United States the numerous 
children of its active citizens furnished with natural aids to pro- 
duction are no burden, whi'e the economical and moral conditions 
in Spain, Italy and Russia — countries with a strong representation of 
the younger classes, — would probably be better, if they were more 
strongly represented by the classes of middle age instead of those 
of less advanced age. On the contrary, France, the most scanty in the 
number of children among all nations of modern civilization, would 
be better situated with a greater representation of the younger class- 
es. It is able to support more children than it does, and the result 
is not only a decline oHts position among nations, but also a contin- 
ual regardless experiment with its political relations both at home 
and abroad. Just as a family mth children is more prudent in its 
conduct than one without children, so a nation rich in children, ii 
in other respects it exists under favorable economical conditions, is 
more conservative than one economically well situated but scanty 
in children. Besides in the latter case, just as in the case of child- 
less people, a greater selfishness crops out than in a nation of the 
former description, and so much the more if, as shown, a decline in 
the political position is connected therewith. 

PRODUCING AND CONSUMING CLASSES. 
These views receive more special meaning for us when they are 
applied in considering the separate classes of the population of the 
United States. 

According to the census of 1880 there are 

In 1000 native wLites: In 1000 colored;* 

Under 15 years, 426 442 

From 15-70 years, 55(> 541 

Over 70 years 18 17 

1000 1000 

*Tlie official census of 1880 used in this age-<Iiptributio-n includes undeF Colored also 
Chinese (,104,43(>), Japanese (148), and Indians (66,407;, 



POPULATION BY AGES. 11 

Thus 556 native whites had to support 426 children and 18 aged ; 
and 541 colored had to support 442 children and 17 aged : that is 
for 100 native whites able to produce there were 80 children and 
old people, and for a 100 colored producers there were 85 children 
and aged. If each of these two classes were an independent econ- 
omic organism in the sense a nation is such, the advantages of this 
age distribution in the colored population would be most question- 
able, as this class is notoriously the poorest. If the colored popu- 
lation were thrown upon their own resourses they would become 
extinct because of the unequal relation of support and propagation. 
And in like manner, under the same supposed condition, the native 
white population would have to witness essential changes as to the 
relation of production to consumption. 

Here comes in as a corrective, not to be undervalued, the third 
element of the population of the U. S,, the immigrant element, in 
which for obvious reasons the representation of the younger classes 
is very small and the producing classes preponderate. 

Of 1000 immigrants* enumerated in the census of 1880 there 
were 

Under 15 years, 63 

From 15-70 years, 886 
Over 70 years 51 

1000 

BELIEF OF THE BURDEN OF LABOB. 

From the addition of this element of population it results, that 
for the total population there are only 67 children and aged to 
100 producers, which lightens the burden of labor for the producing 
classes in the United States in such a manner, that it is more favor- 
able than that of England, and comes very near to that of Ger- 
many. According to the statistics used by Engel in 1879, this 
burden of labor, estimated by our method, amounted to 68 in Eng- 
land, 64 in Germany, 63 in Austria and Hungary, 62 in Holland, 57 
in Switzerland and 51 in France to 100 producers. In our great cit- 
ies on the Atlantic Coast the burden of laborf w^as still less. 
To 100 producers there were in 1880 children and aged : in Balti- 
more, 52; in New York, 49; in Fhiladelphia, 48; in Boston, only 44. 

*The census reports giving the number of immigrants differ. According' to the statis- 
tics for age-distribution the number is 6,752,813, in the others 6,5b0,793— a difference of 
120.2«4. 

+The numerical ratio of producers to consumers. 



12 POPULATION BY AGES. 

Of course all the foregoing statements in reference to the burden 
of labor, do not give the exact relation of the actual producers to 
those who are exclusively consumers, because not all possible pro- 
ducers are engaged in producing. The number of actual producers 
can be more accurately determined, when an enumeration is made. 
Such an enumeration is to be found in the census reports for the 
various vocations. The results of these statistics, however, are not 
reliable, since many who are in fact producers can not be classified 
as such, as for example the great number of women who labor in 
their own households. 

The relation of producers to consumers as determined from the 
age-distribution shows, at least, the producing capacity of a nation, 
which may be made the subject of comparison with other coun- 
tries.* In order to observe the relation the number of possible 
pioducers bears to those enumerated in different census reports as 
actual producers, (children and aged included,) let it be noticed 
that for 1000 ot the former class there were of the latter : 

In Genua nv in 1875, 626 

lu France in 1876, 570 

In United States in 1880, 578 

In New York in " 633 

In Pliiladelpliia in " 611 

In Baltimore in " 596 



INCREASE OF THE BURDEN OF LABOR. 

If we consider the white population (native and immigrant) by 
itself we shall find in 1000 whites 608 of a producing age, 371 un- 
der 15 years and 20 aged. For 100 able to produce there are thus 
only 64 children and aged, which number corresponds to the same 
state of things in Germany, while, as already said, in the colored pop- 
ulation for 100 possible producers there are 85 children and aged. It 
in the face of this obvious incapacity of the colored race to support it- 
self independently, this element of the population shows no decrease 
but an increase in its numbers, this prosperity of the colored class, 
economically considered, must be a burden to the white population; 
and if a calculation could be made from this point of view, it would 
become evident, that the Indians are not the most expensive wards 
of the United States. The increase of the colored population is rel- 
atively gi eater than that ot the whites. In 1870 of 1000 persons 

*W. Lexis, "Cousumptiou" in ISchoenberg'a Political Economy. 



POPULATION BY AGES. 13 

there were 875 whites, and 125 colored; and in 1880, 869 whites, 
and 131 colored. This increase ot the number of colored deserves 
still more consideration, when compared with the increase of the 
various elements of the white population. There were of 1000 in- 
habitants 

1870: 1880: 

Native Whites 733 786 

Immigrants 143 133 

Colored 125 131 

For a loss of 10 iu the number of immigrants there is a gain of 
only 4 native whites but of 6 colored. Equally convincing is the 
percentage of increase in the separate elements of the population. 
While from 1870-'80 the native whites increased 29.5 per cent., the 
colored population was augmented by 38.8 per cent., and the immi- 
grant element by 19.9 per cent. A way out of the difficulties 
made apparent by these figures is obstructed by the unequal geo- 
graphical distribution of the colored population over the extent of 
the union, by its almost uniform occupation and by its political con- 
solidation.* 

AGE-DISTRIBUTION AND WAGES. 

The rate of wages in all cases depends on the combined effect of 
the following circumstances : (1) the cost of the production of la- 
bor ; (2) its exchangeable value; (3) the consumptive power 
of the market or its ability to pay the products of labor, and (4) 
the relation of supply and demand of labor. 

The costs of production of labor are represented by the expenses 
necessary to produce, maintain and cultivate the ability to work. 
Therefore, they are equal to the means requisite to the sustenance of 
the workingman and his family. They are the lowest limit of the 
rate of wages. If they go under it distress is the consequence, just 
as a storekeeper or manufacturer must suffer loss if compelled to 
sell his goods under cost price. The wages not being higher than 
the cost ot sustenance, the laborer's condition must be the same as 
that of any other business man, who has to sell his goods at cost 
price. Therefore, normal wages, like any other normal prices Of 
goods, must exceed the price of production or self cost. On the 
other hand, the highest obtainable price for goods or labor will be 
their exchangeable value, which is dependent upon the financial 
ability of the general market or the consumers. 

*It may be of interest to view these facts from the general standpoint 
taken by Herbert Spencer when criticising artificial efforts for the preserva- 
tion of the feeblest.— (Study of Sociology, Chap. XIV.) 



14 POPULATION BY AGES. 

The fluctuation of the rates of wages between their lowest and 
highest limits are caused by the supply and demand of labor. 

As the age-distribution of a population in accordance with the 
theory of "burden of labor," becomes manifest in the mode of the 
sustenance of a population, in its consumptive ability and the num- 
ber of individuals determining the relation of supply and demand 
of labor, so the age-distribution must also be an element influencing 
tlie rate of wages. 

And this is actually so, only the same kind of age-distribution 
may have different effects. In the one country or district a large 
representation of children and high wages may appear, and some- 
where else low wages and a great number of children may be con- 
comitant. This experience is analogous to the similar one made in 
reference to the influence ot a large or small representation of children 
OM the general welfare of a population. As only favorably situated 
Countries can prosper with a great number of children, so only such 
countries or districts will show high wages with a large representation 
of children. Poor populations with many children will be afflicted 
U'ith a low rate of wages. 

True it is that the necessaries of life are enlarged with the number 
of children and thereby the selfcosts of labor are increased, but 
therefrom alone does not result a proportionate extension of means to 
satisfy the greater expenses, which means can be procured only by 
an improvement of the exchangeable value of labor or the financial 
condition of the general market. And true as it is thaf with a dim' 
inished representation of the middle aged, resulting from a great 
number of children, a reduced number of those able to work will in- 
fluence the supply of labor, nevertheless by all these circumstances 
alone a greater demand for labor is not guaranteed which demand 
depends upon the purchasing ability of consumers. 

In cases only when the number of children is proportionate to the 
exchangeable value of labor and the consumptive power of the mar- 
ket, the age-distribution will be proportionately marked in the rate 
of wages. 

Besides, there are circumstances which incidentally aflfect the rate 
of wages. The most noteworthy of them are the costs of machinery 
and material, operating expenses, female labor and employment of 
children. 

All these circumstances, essential or incidental, must be consider- 



POPULATION BY AGES. 15 

ed when comparing the rate of wages of different countries or dis- 
tricts. The census does not give data from which concluHions may 
be justly drawn as to the effect of the age-distribution on wages. 
In the annexed Table V all that was found in the census in reference 
to the point in question was arranged in a condensed form. Of 
coursethe value of this Table as in the main that of the statement un- 
der the heading "Wages per Caput," is moderate. The value of this 
column would have been enhanced if the census had stated separately 
the amount of wages paid to females, children and male adults and the 
exact period of time for which wages were paid, if for a whole year 
or only a part of it. 

Anyhow a few general remarks may be admissible. 

The United States having the largest number of children of all 
civilized 'countries pay the largest wages, while the laborers in 
Russia, which has a similar age representation, are compelled to 
work for a poor compensation. The colored population of the 
United States has relatively far more children than the whites, and 
those States of the Union with a large colored component belong 
to those where the rates of wages are the lowest, Louisiana only ex- 
cepted ; while in Utah, which as to age representation ranks with 
the Southern States, wages are conspicuously higher than in these 
states. The cause of higher wages in the U. S. when compared 
with the low wages in Russia results not only from the higher stan- 
dard of life of American laborers — which by itself would have no im- 
proving influence at all, — but from the higher exchangeable value of 
American labor. The same circumstances answer for the lower 
wa2;es in the Southern States, where, of course, another circumstance 
is co-working, the comparatively higher rate of "gross profits" which 
in average exceeds that in most of the other States. 

MORALITY AND CRIME. 

Next to the economical influence of the distribution of a popu- 
lation by ages, the moral effects are to be noticed. The influence 
of a suitable number of children upon a people's activity, economical 
zeal, due consideration in intercourse with other nations, care in 
holding its acquisitions and in avoiding experiments with its social 
relations as well as foreign dangers, we have already discussed. 
Apart from these ethical influences of age-distribution is to be men- 
tioned the fact that crime is really conditioned by it as the tend- 
ency to commit crime depends, not only in respect to grade, but 



16 POPULATION BY AGES. 

kind as well, upon the age of the individual. In youth the disposi- 
tion to commit crime is greater, just as the moral resistance is less 
than in more advanced life. And while in youth the crimes com- 
mitted are more brutal, those of advanced age have more of the 
character of malice and forethought.* According to statistics the 
ages from 16 to 30 years are most liable to crime. Hence in a popula- 
tion, other things being equal, the criminality is greater as the per- 
sons of these ages are more numerous. This accounts to a consider- 
able extent for the preponderance of crime among certain classes Pud 
in certain sections of country. 

Whether the statistical results of other countries and places, as 
for example France and London, are applicable in this regard to the 
U. S. we cannot say, because there are no reliable statistics of crime. 
Yet it can hardly be presumed that the U. S. would show the same 
results because the ethnical composition of our population is too 
varied in point of culture and manner of life, and a comparison of 
the frequency of crime with the age-distribution seems permissible 
only when other relations remain unchanged. The fact that of 1000 
native whites 291 are of ages from 15 to 30 years, while of 1000 
colored only 279 are of the same ages, would scarcely justify the 
assumption of a greater rate of crime among the former than among 
the latter ; because the differences between these two classes, in point 
of wealth and education, are too great. On the other hand the much 
censured criminality of large cities might be attributed to the fact 
that in them the classes of the above named ages are more strong- 
ly represented than elsewhere. 

While the total population of the United States shows for these 
classes only 283 per 1000, there are of the same ages in New York 
300, in Philadelphia 302 and in Baltimore 304 to 1000. 

MORTALITY AND DISEASE. 

It is a well known fact that both mortality and disease are in- 
fluenced to a certain extent by age. In early childhood mortality 
is very great, then it rapidly decreases and reaches its minimum at 
the twelfth or thirteenth year, when it again increases until in old 
age it reaches the same rate as in childhood. 

Moreover the causes of death depend largely upon the age- of 
the person, since some ages are more exposed to certain diseases 
than others are. In the same way the age influences the frequen- 

*Quetelet, rhysiQue sociale. 



POPULATION BY AGES 17 

cy, duration and dangerous character of diseases. From this it 
follows ti at a different representation in the various age-classes 
causes differences in the mortality, T3re valence and character of dis- 
eases. In localities with a larger representation of children the 
average rate of mortality will he greater than where there are 
more persons of middle age. Not less in a population of the foi- 
mer class will those causes of death preponderate which are either 
more incident to childhood or are connected with greater danger 
to it. And, finally, also the frequency as well as the duration of 
disease will be greater where there are more aged persons."^ 

Notwithstanding the attempt made in the official census for the 
United States we possess no reliable data relative to mort-ality and 
disease, and thus the preceding statements can not be verified for 
the United States by general statistical results. 

A comparison of the statistics for New York, Philadelphia, and 
Baltimore might, nevertheless, suffice to substantiate at least for 
these cities the above statements, which are abundantly demonstra- 
.ted in other countries. 

GENERAL RATE OF MORTALITY AND NUMBER OF 
CHILDREN. 

Accepting the number ot people in the three cities. New York, 
Philadelphia and Baltimore, as found in the census of 1880, and the 
number of the deaths in these cities as given in the publications of 
their health departments, there were in 1880 among 10,000 persons 
in New York 265 deaths, in Baltimore 242, in Philadelphia 209. f 

The number of children in these cities corresponds to. this general 
rate of mortality. Among 10,000 persons there were in New York 
1164, in Baltimoi-e 1154 and in Philadelphia 1081 children under 
5 years. New York shoe's, with the largest number of children, 
the greatest average mortality, and Philadelphia with the smallest 
representation of children, shows the lowest rate of mortality, while 
Baltimore, both as to number of children and average mortality, 
comes in between" the two. The relation between the number of chil- 
dren and the rate of mortality is not an equal but an analogous one; 
for if it were equal, Philadelphia, when compared with Baltimore, 
would have to have an average mortality of 226, and New York 
244 per 10,000 persons ; while the former has in reality 209 and the 

*VVtstergart''s priKe essay ''Mortality and Sickness." 

tValuint? tire probability of mistakf^s in the enumerations, the mortality 
of the whole population in New York was from 248 to 282, in Philadelphia 
from 194 to 224, and in Baltiuiore from 226 to 258 per thousand. 



18 POPULATION BY AGES. 

latter 265 per 10,000 inhabitants. This shows that the difference 
between the general rate of mortality in these cities is, at all events, 
conditioned, though only in part, by the ijumber of children. In 
order to ascertain the other causes of the differences ol mortality it 
will be necessary to eliminate from the total mortality not only 
that of children but also that of foreign born, and particularly of 
the colored population, both of which last named classes, but espec- 
ially the last, show material deviation from the mortality of native 
whites. 

GENERAL MORTALITY. COLORED AND IMMIGRANTS. 

Among 10,000 native whites in Baltimore there were 220 deaths, 
in the same number of immigrants 227 deaths, of colored 349 deaths. 
For the same number of persons in Philadelphia there were of native 
whites 207 deaths, of immigrants 194 deaths, of colored 350 deaths. 
In New York (for which city the writer of this essay had no com- 
plete published report of the board of health for 1880) the average 
number of deaths for the years '78-'79 were ol native whites 267, of 
immigrants 197, of colored 230 to 10,000 persons in each class.* 
In the population of these three cities the above named classes are 
very differently represented. Proportionately, Baltimore has more 
than nine times as many colored as New York, and more than lour 
times as many as Philadelphia ; while New York has relatively more 
than twice as many immigrants as Baltimore, and Philadelphia 
more by one fourth than the latter city. Of the total population 
there were of 1000 persons in 1880 : 

in N. Y. in Pliila. in Balto. 

Native Wliites 586 720 669 

Colored 17 38 162 

Immigrants 397 243 169 

Only after eliminating the differences of the composition, f 

*Tlie numbers of tlie ditferent classes of the population of New York esti- 
mated by the rate of their increase from 1870 to 1880 were : 
In 1878 : in 1879 : 

Native whites 662,970 684.766 

Colored 18,710 19,580 

Foreign born 466,420 472,504 

Total 1,148,100 1,176,850 

tFor instance if the relation of the different elements of the population as 
to race and nationality in Philadelphia should be the same as in Baltimore, 
of its 847,180 inhabitants in 1880 would have died (in according with Phila- 
delphia's experience of mortality for the ditferent classes of its population) 
19,104 instead of 17,711 (as actually was the case) or 226 instead of 209 per 
thousand. 



POPULATION BY AGES. 19 

occupation and habitation of the population of various localities can 
conclusions be drawn as to the sanitary conditions of these places. 
The comparison of the general average mortality of different places is 
otno value whatever and this method usually adopted by the health 
departments of our cities should be abandoned.* 



MORTALITY OF CHILDREN. 

For a comparison of the rates of mortality of children in various 
countries and places the same method of preliminary elimination is to 
be followed as in the case of the population in general. For every 
10,000 children under 5 years of age in 1880, there were deaths in 
New York 1044, in Baltimore 939, and in Philadelphia 720. From 
these figures it does not follow that the mortality of children, 
locally considered, "was greater in New York than in Baltimore or 
PhiladeliDhia. Of the many questions to be answered before de- 
ciding which of these three cities is the most healthful for children, 
that of the constituency of the number of children in those cities 
is to be settled. Thus, for example, the effect of the mortality of col- 
ored children on the total mortality of children is to be determin- 
ed, which would not be necessary if the number of colored children 
in these three cities were relatively the same. But this is by no 
means the case. Of every 10,000 children under 5 years of age 
Baltimore has 1530 colored, Philadelphia 340, and New York 120. 
It iy in accordance with what has been said before of the greater 
mortality of the colored population, a well grounded requirement 

*The colored population of New York inclades fewer children than there 
are among the same race in Pliiladelphia or Baltimore. In 1880 were en- 
umerated in New York 83, in Philadelphia 98, and in Baltimore 109 children 
under 5 years in 1000 of colored of all ages. On the other hand the white 
population of New York h'-.s more children than either in Philadelphia or 
Baltimore. The Census of 1880 shows in New York 117, in Philadelphia 108 
and in Baltimore 116 children under 5 j^ears in 1000 ot whites of all ages. 
This proportion of children in tiie two classes of the population may partly 
explain the average rate of mortality of the white population of New York 
being in excess over that of the colored 

In order to explain the greater mortalit}^ of immigrants in Baltimore when 
compared with the same in New York or Philadelphia, in which two cities 
it is about the same, it must be understood that in Baltimore the foreign el- 
ement from 1870 to 1880 has gained less by immigration than the same ctass of 
the population in New York or Philadelphia, and that, in consequence of this, 
the advanced ages must be more numerously represented among the immi 
grants in Baltimore than in the same class of population in New York or 
Philadelphia. The increase of the foreign element from 1870 to 1880 was 
in New York 14.21 and in Philadelphia 11.28 per cent., while in Baltimore it 
decreased by 0.62 per cent. 



20 POPULATION BY AGES. 

that these last figures be considered m a comparison of the mortality 
of children in different places. If Philadelphia had the same pro- 
portion of colored children as Baltimore, and the relation of the mor- 
tality of colored children to the total mortality of children were only 
the same as the relation of the mortality of the colored population to 
the mortality of the whole population in these two cities,* the rate of 
mortality of children in Philadepbia instead of being what it is, 720, 
would be 864 to the 10,000. From this example alone can be seen 
how great the influence of the ethnical composition of a population 
is upon the general rate of mortality and how poorly figures ex- 
pressing this rate are adapted to statistical comparison?. 

In this connection reference may be made to another circum- 
stance which is of importance in comparing the sanitary con- 
dition of American cities. Many of these cities have annexed 
the adjoining rural districts. By this means, however, at least 
thus far, these districts have not changed their character as regards 
the occupation and density of their population. 

Of 847,170 inhabitants enumerated in Philadelphia in 1880 
253,074 (about one third) occupied nearly 117 square miles, and 
594,096 (the other two thirds) not quite 13 square miles. For 
those 117 square miles the rate of mortality was 188 and for the 
13 square miles 217 per 10,000 inhabitants. Similar relations exist 
in many large cities of the United States and in the next census, 
1890, will be still more general than in 1880. Without a careful 
consideration of these facts the sanitary conditions of various cities 
cannot be iustlv comuared. 



CAUSES OF DEATH.— ZYMOTIC DISEASES. 

The effect of the distribution of a population by age on the kind 
of causes resulting in deaths can be easilv demonstrated. Let us 

*The mortality of colored children when compared with the number of 
deaths among white children must largely exceed the ratio of the mortality 
of the colored race in general to that of the whole white population. Apart 
of the many circumstances intluencing the mortality among children (as 
habitation, mode of living, education of parents, etc., etc.) which cannot be 
depreciated in a ccmiparison of the two classes of population, the illegitimacy 
of children must be considered. The death rate of illegitimate children is to 
a great extent larger than the mortality among legitimate otfspring. The 
frequent illegitimacy among the colored in the three named cities may be 
fairly presumed, knowing the striking excess of colored females in the mar- 
riageable ages of those cities. 



POPULATION BY AGES. 21 

select from the different causes of dedth two, which, together, bring 
about nearly half of the entire number of deaths. These are mias- 
matic-zymotic diseases and consumption. To the former children 
are peculiarly exposed ; to the latter persons from 15 to 50 years 
of age. Ot the 7201 persons who died of zymotic diseases in New 
York in 1878, 5543 were children under 5 years, and of 7371 deaths 
from the same cause in 1879, 5747. In Philadelphia, in 1880, 3875 
persons died of miasmatic-zymotic diseases. Of this number 2424 
were under 5 years of age. It is evident that in places with a large 
representation of children, these diseases must play a greater part 
than in those places which have a smaller representation of children. 
In 1880 from such diseases there were for every 10,000 persons 79 
deaths in New York, 70 in Baltimore, 47 in Philadelphia, which 
figures correspond to those given above for the number or children 
under 5 years of age. As all miasmatic-zymotic diseases, including 
those to which adults also are exposed as, for example, small-pox 
and cholera, attack children in particular, one might suppose, that 
this class of diseases in places with a large representation of chil- 
dren would be more dangerous also for older persons, so far as the 
spreading of the diseases is concerned. Just as in case of fire the 
danger is greater for well constructed buildings surrounded by 
those poorly built, than for such as have not this dangerous environ- 
ment. 

This last supposition, however, can not be corroborated by statis- 
tic«, because the circumstances which cause the spread of these 
diseases are too manifold. In the years 1880, '81, '82 deaths re- 
sulting from small-pox were in New York 741, in Philadelphia 
2074, in Baltimore 563. If the population in these cities for '80- '83 
be recorded by the rate of increase of numbers in the decade 
'70 '80,* the average result would be for New York 1,236,760 persons, 
for Philadelphia 866,943 and tor Baltimore 339,706. This would give 
for every 10,000 persons deaths from small-pox in New York 6, in 
Philadelphia 21, and in Baltimore 17. So far as the spread of 
small-pox among adults is concerned, the number of children in a 
population does not seem to aggravate the case. 

♦Although this method of determiuing the number of inhabitants in j'ears in which 
thev >vere not enumerated, be not the best approved, it will be sufficient to admit results 
of an approximate correctness, and. under all circumstances, is preferable to the arbitrary 
assumptions of the health departments in different cities. 



268 


293 


196 


199 


177 


1177 


1156 


877 


900 


938 


1090 


1133 


634 


684 


682 


783 


765 


421 


441 


407 


3318 


3347 


2128 


2224 


2204 


1268 


1095 


565 


544 


607 



22 POPULATION BY AGES. 

CONSUMPTION. 

The following table shows the mortality from con^um >tion among 
classes of various ages : 

N. Y. N. Y. Phila. Phila. Phil a 

1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 

From 15-20 years 
From 20-30 years 
From 30-40 years 
From 40-50 years 

From 15-50 years 
Of all other ages 

Total 4586 4442 2693 2768 2811 

Accordingly, of 100 deaths from consumption in the total popula- 
tion, there were distributed among these persons ranging from 
15-50 years of age, 74 in New York, 79 in Philadelphia, in such order 
that those persons from 20-30 years of age suffered most and 
those from 30-40 years rank next in number of deaths. Of every 
100 fatal cases of consumption, there were in New York 50, and in 
Philadelphia 57, among persons between 20 and 40 years of age. 
If in keeping with the same and similar results in other countries 
the influence of age on the prevalence of consumption is not to be 
doubted, then in those countries and places also in which the 
ages most subject to this disease are most strongly represented, a 
greater relative number of deaths from consumption will be found. 
In general, this conclusion proves correct. Thus in New York in 
1880 with 39 such deaths to the 10,000 inhabitants, 5739 of these 
deaths were of persons ranging from 15-50 years of age, and in 
Baltimore with 36 deaths from consumption to 10,000 inhabitants, 
5480 of these deaths were of persons from 15-50 years of age. If 
we include Philadelphia in this comparison there will be some 
slight variation. Although this city has more persons from 15-50 
years of age than Baltimore, (5635 to 10,000) it has less deaths 
from consumption than Baltimore, viz.: only 32 to 10,000 inhabitants. 
Even after excluding those rural districts annexed to the city the 
rate increases only to 34 per 10,000 inhabitants. Since the female 
sex in the younger classes is more exposed to consumption than 
the male sex, it m^y be presumed that this difference might be ex- 
plained by a greater representation of women in Baltimore. But 
as a matter of fact Philadelphia had to 10,000 persons 2969, and 
Baltimore 2929 women from 15-50 years of age ; and in the most 



POPULATION BY AGES. 23 

<;ritical ages for consumption, from 20-30 years, Philadelphia shows 
1114 and Baltimore 1110 women to 10,000 inhabitants. 

Only when the numbers of women of the ages from 15-30 years 
in the two cities are compared, is a preponderance of females found 
in Baltimore over the number in Philadelphia, 1666 to 10,000 per- 
sons in Baltimore and only 1630 in Philadelphia. That thus the 
difference in mortality from consumption in Philadelphia and Bal- 
timore might be espUined, may be presumed, though not proved, 
because the publications of the board of health in Baltimore give 
only the general mortality according to age and sex and make no 
classification ot causes of death either for age or sex. For ttesame 
reason Baltimore could not be considered in the above table show- 
ing the distribution of deaths from consumption among classes of va- 
rious ages. — 

That the age influences also the kind, frequency, duration and fa- 
tal character of the disease, and that a certain law underlies this in- 
fluence has been frequently shown in the case of separate groups of 
a population, as laborers, members of relief societies, &c. But for 
the entire population these proofs are wanting. Once or twice an 
official attempt has been made to collect statistics of diseases for the 
entire population, but without any result worthy of mention. For 
the United States as well as for single cities, no sufficient basis has 
been laid for such statistics. 



GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE AGE-DISTRIBUTION. 

The relations of the distribution of a people by ages to the phen- 
omena of its life are of a two-fold nature. This distribution is 
either a cause of other phenomena of social importance or is con- 
ditioned by them; but in both cases the law of reciprocity is in force. 

Among the various causes affecting the wealth, morality, crime 
and diseases of a people this distribution holds a prominent place, 
while, at the same time, these social factors have a reflex effect upon 
it. On the other hand this distribution is conditioned, apart 
from two natural causes, births and deaths, by economical crisis, 
wars, immigration and the different elements constituting a popula- 
tion. Here again distribution by age shows its reciprocal influence. 
An unfavorable representation of the producing classes may bring 
about a crisis and too large a number of the same classes may give 
rise to emigration or, as in former centuries, to wars; while too small 



24 POPULATION BY AGES. 

a representation of the classes of middle age could render a war in 
defense of the country impossible. From this law of reciprocity, 
the composition of a people according to nationalities forms the 
only exception, since the latter has a great influence on the age- 
classification and this cannot effect the ethnical composition of a 
people. 

Even the two natural causes, births and deaths, influencing the 
age-distribution, are subject to the law of reciprocity, because in a 
smaller representation of the classes of middle age there will be 
fewer births and deaths, and in a population with a smaller num- 
ber of children fewer deaths. 

The foregoing analysis of the relations of age-distribution to the 
various social phenomena clears the way for answering the ques- 
tion, whether it lies within the power of society to modify the re- 
presentation in the various age-classes in sach a manner as may 
seem most advantageous to the community. 

Since from all conditioning and conditioned factors here enum- 
erated only two are physical and all the others social, the answer is 
easily given. 

Only so far as the age-distribution depends upon births and 
deaths, and so far as the last two can not be controlled by human 
agencies, actions, abstinence or precautions, this distribution is re- 
moved from the social domain. This answer is similar to that to be 
given to the question concerning the nature of the causes of the in- 
crease of population. With this last much discussed question, ours is 
very nearly related. Both the increase and age distribution of a popu- 
lation are, within the limits assigned above, the results of natural 
factors, but have in other respects a social character, which society 
may both regulate and modify. 

This conception leaves undetermined, as a matter of course, 
from what social sources this modifying and directing influence, so 
far as it should be immediate, should proceed. The kind of solu- 
tion to be given for the problem depends upon political conditions. 

The indirect influences of society on the distribution of ages ema- 
nate from the manifold social circumstances which are conditioned 
partly by individual actions and partly by their combinations. 

Just as the increase of the population is not conditioned exclu- 
sively by a physical and a physiological circumstance, the fertility 
of the soil and the propagative faculty ot man ; and just as the law 
of the increase of the population is not an unalterable natural law ; 



POPULATION BY AGES. 25 

SO the age-distribution is not dependent entirely upon purely nat- 
ural conditions, but is, besides, the result of circumstances subject 
to free will in the larger meaning of the word. 

This two-fold, natural and social, character belongs, more or less, 
to all social phenomena. At one time one face of it will be more 
apparent, while at another the opposite will attract the attention of 
the observer with more force, just in proportion as the observations 
are more or less comprehensive as to space or time. When the ob- 
servations extend over a long period of time the natural character 
will be more conspicuous than when it is more limited. In this 
latter case the social type will become more apparent. 

This is the consequence of the general character of human exist- 
ence which in its widest aspect is absolutely dependent on the 
laws of nature and allows an extension of the domain of free will 
in proportion as the concentric spheres of human life are narrowed. 
In the individual sphere free will is the strongest, in the relation to 
the family it becomes weaker and in the further circle of social rel- 
ation it suffers a further abatement. Considered in reference to 
mankind free will is nearly absorbed until it disappears altogether 
in its relation to the universe. When this gradation of the power 
of free will is considered by time or historically, the result will be 
the same. The larger the period of time for which the develop- 
ment of mankind is observed, the more the effects of free will dis- 
appear and the more prominent will become natural conditions. 

The practical statesmen whose region is limited to comparatively 
small spheres of action as to time and space, is inclined to overlook 
the natural condition of society, while the social philosopher in his 
far reaching and wide embracing observations not unfrequently 
ignores influences reeulting from the peculiar organization of social 
lite. 



26 



POPULATION BY AGES. 



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30 



POPULATION BY AGES. 



A^. 









VALUE OF PRODUCTS 










100. 






Persons 
under 15 
years of 
age per 
1000 of 


Wages 

per 
Caput. 










Rate of 

Wages to 
Value of 


Rate of 
Material 
to Value 

of 
Products. 


Gross 
Profits. 




Inhabi- 
tants. 


Products. 




Montana 


242 


551 


18.43 


63 05 


18.52 


Nevada 


250 


800 


21.19 


48.16 


30.65 


Colorado 


254 


456 


16 23 


61.73 


22.04 


Arizona 


259 


505 


17.98 


()1 49 


20.. 53 


N. Hampshire.. 


264 


303 


20.03 


58.87 


21.10 


Wyoming 


267 


480 


20.90 


6<).91 


12.19 


Massachusetts . 


287 


364 


20 32 


58.44 


21.24 


Khode Island... 


297 


340 


20..50 


55.79 


23.71 


Connecticut 


297 


385 


23.42 


55.02 


21.56 


Maine 


299 


257 


17.07 


64.04 


18.89 


Vermont 


31)6 


289 


16.51 


58.49 


25.00 


California 


306 


481 


17.34 


62.44 


20.22 


New York 


317 


374 


18.27 


62.43 


19.30 


Idaho 


318 
331 
333 


351 
342 
.549 


10 72 
13.69 
33.03 


72.20 

68.55 
45.07 


17.08 


Jo wa 


17 76 


D. of Columbia. 


21.90 


New Jersey — 


341 


366 


18.12 


64.98 


16.90 


Dakota 


348 


391 


14.30 


64.19 


21 ..51 


Michigan 


353 


326 


16.80 


61.64 


21.56 


Delaware 


354 


338 


•20.80 


62.53 


16.67 


Washington T. 


3.59 


464 


16..38 


60.. 54 


23.08 


Oregon 


361 


484 


1.5.25 


63.62 


21.13 


Ohio 


364 
364 


333 
346 


17.83 
17.99 


61.82 
62.43 


20.35 


Pennsylvania,.. 


19.58 


Maryland 


370 


252 


17.70 


62.75 


19 55 


New Mexico.... 


378 


393 


17.02 


67.98 


15.00 


Illinois.... ... 


381 


397 


13.81 


69.86 


16.33 


Indiana.. .. 


881 


316 


14.84 


67.74 


17.42 


Wisconsin. ... 


382 


329 


14.67 


66.90 


18.43 


Minnesota 


395 


405 


11.32 


73.17 


15.51 


Missouri 


405 


379 


14.69 


66.99 


18.32 


Nebraska 


406 


369 


13 80 


65.01 


21,19 


Kansas 


413 
420 


331 
312 


12.95 
15.44 


69.55 
62.88 


17.50 


Kentucky 


21.68 


Virginia 


423 


185 


14.34 


63..51 


22.15 


Louisiana 


429 


358 


18.01 


59.68 


22.31 


North Carolina. 


4:34 


151 


13.64 


65.15 


21.21 


West Virginia.. 


435 


343 


18.87 


61.34 


19.79 


Florida 


437 


231 


2-i.91 


54.81 


22.28 


Tennessee 


437 


234 


14.17 


64.29 


21.54 


Georgia 


446 


212 


14.44 


66.26 


19.30 


Utah 


448 
448 


344 
255 


19.86 
18.43 


59.23 
62.99 


20.91 


Alabama 


18.58 


Texas 


451 


275 


16.13 


62.53 


21 ..34 


South Carolina 


452 


178 


16.95 


59.06 


23.99 


Mississippi .... 


459 


205 


15.86 


62.08 


22.06 


Arkansas ... 


459 


203 


1 13.70 


65.01 


21.29 



Females 


Children 


per 1000 


per 1000 


of Total 


of Total 


Hands 


Hands 


employed 


employed 


5.23 


1.74 


8.67 


27.73 


32.44 


30.74 


9.09 


9.09 


.331.40 


67.71 




28.13 
49..58 


300.85 


345..52 


142.74 


255.52 


74.79 


260.16 


70.74 


129.47 


47.37 


89,71 


33.41 


237.48 


.52.21 


23.70 


17.75 


50.44 


54.95 


199.68 


37.. 58 


215.01 


96.42 


9.23 


6.92 


61.66 


.56.23 


112.83 


76.12 


22.52 


10.81 


27.58 


27.93 


101.00 


69.87 


188.71 


76.64 


289.54 


87.36 




7.41 


105.25 • 


61.74 


52.01 


54 97 


109.28 


45.75 


77.00 


31.72 


85..54 


67.52 


26.88 


46.82 


31.11 


42.14 


94.16 


77.91 


152.90 


129.80 


109.72 


54.33 


162.30 


129.87 


24.18 


74.25 


101.40 


69.40 


53.29 


76 32 


145.48 


93.01 


88.58 


92.99 


84,04 


80.75 


9.54 


32.73 


64.63 


70.63 


85.54 


67.52 


1 19.80 


35.10 



